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Item Diffusion of COVID-19 Misinformation in Kenyan X Conversations(International Journal of Communication and Public Relation, 2025) Munuku, Anne W.; Ndavula, John O.Purpose: The study set out to explore the role of X conversations in the spread of misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya. Methodology: The study was guided by the Rumor Theory. The study adopted a descriptive survey design which allowed the researchers to collect data without interacting with participants. Data was collected from existing online records of conversations on X and other relevant websites such as the Ministry of Health. The data was sourced from hashtags and tweets related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya, posted in the period from March 2020 to April 2021. The hashtags and tweets were mined using the free API tool for geolocated tweets. 16 hashtags and 200 tweets were selected for the study. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics while qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis under classified themes. Findings: The findings of the study indicate that none of the hashtags created by Kenyans was framed to spread misinformation but the tweets under the different hashtags analyzed contained misinformation. Findings also indicate that verified X handles were involved in either creating or spreading COVID-19 misinformation. Additionally, false claims were found to diffuse faster than partially false claims as observed in the tweets with misinformation. Compared to a background corpus of COVID-19 tweets, tweets with misinformation were more often concerned with discrediting other information on social media. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: We recommend that the government and stakeholders in health ought to counter COVID-19 misinformation online, and equip users with basic digital literacy skills regarding consumption of online information while continuously monitoring online discourses. A policy on online health communication needs to be developed and implemented.Item Influence of the Hashtag Context on Public Opinion Formation on Sociopolitical Issues in Kenya(Journal of Public Policy and Administration, 2017) Munuku, Anne W.; Mberia, Hellen; Ndavula, John O.Purpose: The purpose of the study was to determine how the context in which a hashtag is formulated the influences public opinion formation on sociopolitical issues in Kenya Methodology: The study adopted descriptive and qualitative research design. The study population consisted of the hashtags generated by Kenyans in the period between January 2014 and December 2016 and the local television stations and members of public involved in hashtag development outside the media fraternity. The sampling frame was obtained from the Communication Authority 2015 report, the Kenya Advertisers Association website and the Twitter database. Purposive sampling was used to select the 35 hashtags and snowball sampling was used to select the hashtag developers. Results: The study found that hash tag context has a significant relationship with public opinion formation. The study found that all hashtags formulated by Kenyans were context bound as they were formed whenever an issue rose. The wording of the hashtag (frame of communication) communicated the issue regime and the opinion of the formulator. The findings revealed that hashtags based on political contexts were more and trended longer. The political hashtags were 51% while social based ones stand at 40%. The rest were from security and economic contexts. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The research draws on public opinion theory, the theory participatory communication theory and the Critical Discourse Analysis approach by Fairclough. The formulation and dissemination of news using hashtags is a growing and fast changing phenomenon that requires a new approach in its analysis. The use of these three approaches indicates the complexity of the nature of hashtags and the connection between the hashtag, the context that surrounds its formation and the opinion formed in relation to that context. The concept of citizen journalism must be looked at afresh.Item Influence of Framing of the Hashtag on Public Opinion Formation on Socio-political Issues in Kenya(International Journal of Communication and Public Relation, 2017) Munuku, Anne W.; Mberia, Hellen; Ndavula, John O.Purpose: The purpose of the study was to establish the influence of framing of the hashtag on public opinion formation on socio-political issues in Kenya. Methodology: The study adopted the descriptive qualitative research design. The study population consisted of the hashtags generated by Kenyans in the period between January 2014 and December 2016, journalists from 5 local television stations and members of public involved in hashtag development outside the media fraternity. Purposive sampling was used to select the 35 hashtags and snowball sampling was used to select the hashtag developers and respondents from the public and selected media houses. Results: The findings that the framing of the hashtag is done by both the media and the public and the higher percentage of hashtags are done by the public. The study found that 60% of the hash tags were non-ordered in terms of the grammatical structure. Findings revealed that the English language dominates the hashtags formulated with a few having a mixture of Kiswahili and English. Internet lingo was preferred to normal grammar. The selection of words was a key factor in the framing of hashtags. The wording of the hashtag mattered while the syntax did not. In conclusion, the framing of a hashtag was found to have a significant influence on public opinion formation but the grammatical structure of the hashtag did not matter. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The media framing theory describes faming as the process of the media packaging information in a way that tells the public how to think about it. The study concurs with the framing theory’s argument that the way a message is framed will have an influence on the opinion formed by the respondent. Most of the respondents prefer short, concise hashtags that address immediate issues in the society. The results reveal that there is a paradigm shift in the framing theory in this form of synchronous computer mediated discourse. The ordinary citizens in Kenya frame 80% of the hashtags and only a small percentage of trending hashtags are formulated by media practitioners.